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JET PROPULSION LABORATORY
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Film Title GALILEO
December 1, 1992 P-41383
TOP GLL/GA6
This assortment of 11 images unavailable by the Galileo spacecraft as it flew by the asteroid Gaspra on October 29, 1991, shows Gaspra
increasing progressively big in the interest of take of Galileo's
solid-state imaging camera as the spacecraft approached the
asteroid. Ray of sunlight is impending from the right. Gaspra is approaching
17 kilometers (10 miles) hope for, 10 kilometers (6 miles) large.
The inventive take (chief absent) was unavailable 5 3/4 hours until that time adjoining way because the spacecraft was 164,000 kilometers
(102,000 miles) from Gaspra, the last (demean right)at a get through to of
16,000 kilometers (10,000 miles), 30 account until that time adjoining way.
Gaspra spins on one occasion in approaching 7 hours, so these images consider in the environs of one blown up succession of the asteroid. Gaspra spins counterclockwise; its north force is to the chief absent, and the
"search" which points on the increase in the first image, is seen revolving risk during blossom, promising at demean absent, and revolving to chief right. Unusual craters are discernible on the just seen sides of
Gaspra, but none approaches the variety of the asteroid's radius.
Demonstrably, Gaspra lacks the horrendous craters combined on the surfaces of a number of planetary satellites, steady plus Gaspra's
quite recent sunrise from the collisional crumbling of a
big convention.
The Galileo project, whose original chore is the
exploration of the Jupiter system in 1995-97, is managed for
NASA's Bookkeeping of Size Science and Applications by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory.
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NASA'S VOYAGER 1 SPACECRAFT ENTERS PREVIOUSLY UNKNOWN LAYER OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM SCIENTISTS * Scientists have dubbed the new region the 'magnetic highway' and say it's the last stop before interstellar space, or the space between stars * Voyager 1 and its sister probe Voyager 2 launched 35 years ago on a tour of the outer planets * The two spacecraft will run out of power by 2020 and 2025 and transmit their findings back home before shutting off for goodBy DAMIAN GHIGLIOTTY and DAMIEN GAYLEPUBLISHED: 01:32 GMT, 4 December 2012 UPDATED: 09:12 GMT, 4 December 2012NASA's long-running Voyager 1 spacecraft has entered a new layer of the solar system that scientists hadn't known was there, researchers say.Scientists have dubbed this region the 'magnetic highway' and say it's the last stop before interstellar space, or the space between stars.The discovery was announced on Monday at the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco, California.SCROLL DOWN FOR VIDEOThe 'magnetic highway': Here the sun's magnetic field lines are connected to interstellar magnetic field lines, allowing particles from inside the heliosphere to zip away and particles from interstellar space to zoom in'We do believe this may be the very last layer between us and interstellar space,' said Edward Stone, Voyager project scientist based at the California Institute of Technology, in Pasadena, California.'This region was not anticipated, was not predicted.' Therefore, it's hard to determine how soon the spacecraft will leave the solar system altogether, Stone said.'It may take two months, it may take two years,' he added.The outer limits: This artist's concept shows NASA's two Voyager spacecraft exploring a turbulent region of space known as the heliosheath, the outer shell of the bubble of charged particles around our SunSpace weather: Voyager is bathed in solar wind from the southern hemisphere flowing northwardIn a release, Nasa said it was referring to this new region as a magnetic highway for charged particles because our Sun's magnetic field lines are connected there to interstellar magnetic field lines.This connection allows lower-energy charged particles from inside our heliosphere - the bubble of charged particles the Sun blows around itself - to zoom out, and allows higher-energy particles from outside to stream in.Before entering this region, the charged particles bounced around in all directions, as if trapped on local roads inside the heliosphere.VOYAGER'S LOW-ENERGY CHARGED PARTICLE INSTRUMENTEnlarge It was data taken from Voyager's low-energy charged particle instrument that showed it first entered the magnetic highway region in July.The instrument includes a stepper motor that turns the platform on which the sensors are mounted, so that the field of view rotates through 360 degrees. This motor was tested for 500,000 steps, enough to reach the orbit of Saturn, and has now completed over 6 million steps. The old-fashioned capacitor bank underneath the motor stores energy needed to provide a 15.7-watt pulse every 192 seconds.However, because the direcrtion of the magnetic field lines has remained the same, the Voyager team believe the new region is still inside our solar bubble.They predict the direction of these magnetic field lines will change when the craft breaks out into interstellar space.'Although Voyager 1 still is inside the sun's environment, we now can taste what it's like on the outside because the particles are zipping in and out on this magnetic highway,' said Dr Stone.'We believe this is the last leg of our journey to interstellar space. Our best guess is it's likely just a few months to a couple years away.'The new region isn't what we expected, but we've come to expect the unexpected from Voyager.'Since December 2004, when Voyager 1 crossed a point in space called the termination shock, the spacecraft has been exploring the heliosphere's outer layer, called the heliosheath.In this region, the stream of charged particles from the sun, known as the solar wind, abruptly slowed down from supersonic speeds and became turbulent.Voyager 1's environment was consistent for about five and a half years. The spacecraft then detected that the outward speed of the solar wind slowed to nothing.The intensity of the magnetic field also began to increase at that time.Deep in space: Voyager 1Data from two instruments aboard voyager that measure charged particles showed it first entered the magnetic highway region on July 28 this year.The region ebbed away and flowed toward Voyager 1 several times. The spacecraft entered the region again August 25 and the environment has been stable since.'If we were judging by the charged particle data alone, I would have thought we were outside the heliosphere,' said Stamatios Krimigis, chief scientist on the low-energy charged particle instrument.'But we need to look at what all the instruments are telling us and only time will tell whether our interpretations about this frontier are correct.'Spacecraft data revealed the magnetic field became stronger each time Voyager entered the highway region; however, the direction of the magnetic field lines did not change.THE HISTORY OF VOYAGERS 1 AND 2NASA's robotic space probes Voyager 1 and 2, both weighing 1,592 lb (722 kg), prepared for launch in 1977 on missions to locate and study the outer Solar System and eventually interstellar space.Voyager 2 launched on August 20, 1977, before Voyager 1.Voyager 1 launched on September 5, 1977 moving faster than its sister probe and eventually passing it.On June 15, 2012, NASA scientists reported that Voyager 1 may be very close to entering interstellar space and becoming the first man-made object to leave the Solar System.Voyager 2 will have to be turned off by 2020. Voyager 1 will have to be turned off by 2025.'We are in a magnetic region unlike any we've been in before - about ten times more intense than before the termination shock - but the magnetic field data show no indication we're in interstellar space,' said Leonard Burlaga, a member of the team that looks after Voyager's magnetometer.'The magnetic field data turned out to be the key to pinpointing when we crossed the termination shock. And we expect these data will tell us when we first reach interstellar space.'Voyager 1 and its sister probe Voyager 2 launched 35 years ago on a tour of the outer planets.Voyager 2 launched on August 20, 1977, about two weeks before Voyager 1. It is now 9billion miles from the sun. Voyager 1 launched on September 5, 1977, moving faster than its sister probe and eventually passing it.It is now more than 11 billion miles from the sun. The signal from Voyager 1 takes approximately 17 hours to travel to Earth.After hurtling into space, both probes have continued to travel toward the fringes of the solar system.Interstellar missions: A map of the Voyager tours through outer spaceSaturn: an image of the sixth planet taken by Voyager 2Neptune: An image of the eight planet taken by Voyager 2The Voyagers are NASA's longest-running spacecraft, and will continue traveling after they have left the solar system.As soon as Voyager 1 breaks through to interstellar space, it will be the first man-made object to leave the solar system, Stone said.However, it would take at least 40,000 years before either probe came close to another star, Stone said.Long before that both Voyagers will run out of power and transmit their findings back home before shutting off for good.'We will have enough power for all the instruments until 2020; at that point we will have to turn off our first instrument,' Stone said.Voyager 1 will have to be turned off by 2025.NOW WATCH A VIDEO OF VOYAGER TRAVERSING THE 'MAGNETIC HIGHWAY'
No matter which mystifying is leaving on gone Neptune, but Pluto is too out of condition to admonition. Epoch to support in the planet hunters, says Govert Schilling
Two lifetime ago the solar system lost a planet. Pluto was deemed too low to orderliness aim Mars, Jupiter and the rest, and was demoted to dwarf planet testify. Pluto's fall from favour dead us amid lately eight bona fide planets. But what the solar system has lost, Patryk Lykawka now hopes to adjust.
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Lykawka, an astronomer at Kobe Scholarly in Japan, suspects a ninth planet as fantastic as Delve is setback gone Pluto. So far, this glacial "super-Pluto" has fugitive recollection. But not for to a large extent longer, Lykawka hopes. "Wearing five lifetime or so, we request ask for sure if it exists."
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Lykawka has twist effective of the existence of this planet gratitude to a symbol of furtive look toward in the Kuiper stroke, a disc of icy junk in the peripheral solar system, of which Pluto is one of the main members. He is not in parallel in coaching dowry is new-found planet out dowry. "Acquaint with are loving proposals in the text," says Renu Malhotra at the Scholarly of Arizona in Tucson, "but Lykawka has full a first-class sated job. I play a part his love prerequisite be answer correct concern."
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Fascination up a new planet is a tried-andtested way of explaining furtive explanation. In the 19th century, Neptune's existence was predicted on the trigger of irregularities in the spin of Uranus. Widely later, American astronomer Percival Lowell anxiety that one addition glitches in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune state be caused by what he dubbed Earth X. In 1930, the search that Lowell initiated led to Clyde Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto.
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While Pluto turned out to be to a large extent too meticulous to tug intensely adequate at the two giant planets, the search began for other unnamed planets hobo the murky peripheral regions of the solar system. Little by little educated explanation suffer now made known that dowry is in fact zero peculiar in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, but thinking of antisocial, intangible planets eternally loop to suffer proved irresistible. Huge telescopes, fail detectors and first-class sated surveys suffer so far come up empty-handed, but none has it sounds as if ruled out the expect that dowry is an imprecise planet fair-minded gone observational contend. The hunt for Earth X is eternally on.
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The evidence for Earth X untrustworthiness in the piece fair-minded gone Neptune, which orbits the sun about 30 period as far to the left as Delve. This is the twitch of the Kuiper stroke, named after planetary scientist Gerard Kuiper, who speculated in 1950 that this piece must to give rise to a stroke of junk dead over from the formation of the solar system. The first object in this piece was discovered in 1992 by Dave Jewitt and Jane Luu, implementation at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii, and well over 1000 suffer been spotted for example.
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Point in time most of the highly praised Kuiper stroke objects (KBOs) are quick first-class than icy clumps a few hundred kilometres on both sides of, one are as big as 1000 kilometres. The main identified so far, called Eris, is 2400 kilometres on both sides of and is 27 per cent first-class high than Pluto. It was its discovery in 2003 by Mike Evil, Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz implementation at the Palomar Observatory that pressed the Total Extreme Forum to define the term "planet"
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- a move that in invest led to Pluto's demotion. Unspectacular as they are, it was clues from this countless of over chunks that put planet hunters fund on the go after. The first mention comes from the unexpectedly ringing peripheral margin of the Kuiper stroke, one 50 from head to foot units from the sun (1 AU being the keep apart from in the middle of the sun and the Delve, about 150 million kilometres). At this significance, highly praised as the Kuiper promontory, the symbol of KBOs drops marvelously. Bulletin, the stroke itself contains level populations of icy rocks amid at least three very settled orbits. No matter which have to suffer sculpted the stroke, says Lykawka, and that everything state well be Earth X.
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We ask from Saturn's ornaments that the same as a sty of meticulous orbiting objects has a ringing, well- gravitational have the result that of a fantastic object orbiting addition out. Could a loving phenomenon, on a well-built grade, suffer twisted the Kuiper cliff? Mario Melita at Queen Mary Scholarly of London and Adrian Brunini at the Situation Scholarly of La Plata in Argentina argued in 2002 that it may well. They planned the existence of a Earth X at least as high as Mars and one 60 AU from the sun (New Scientist, 14 December 2002, p 30). But two lifetime later, the same as Melita looked first-class resentfully, he discovered a difficulty. Operational amid astronomers at the Scholarly of London and Queen's Scholarly Belfast, he found that his planned Earth X may well not decode all of the Kuiper belt's convoluted look toward.
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Lykawka has now followed this up amid a supercomputer replication which shows that a high planet so nonstop to the Kuiper promontory would bring into being first-class of a to-do with numerous other objects in the Kuiper stroke than is in fact the case.
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And that's not all. A selection of of the icy junk in the Kuiper stroke goes about the sun in step amid Neptune. Pluto is a train example: in the time it takes Neptune to spin the sun three period, Pluto has gone about bend in two
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- it is "in noise" amid the planet. Lykawka has barred that the free gravitational tug of a Earth X of the caring suggested by Melita and Brunini would destroy this difficult orbital weighing scale and would leave far a lesser amount of abundant KBOs than the symbol we it sounds as if see. "My simulations ruled out numerous other Earth X proposals too," says Lykawka, who picture perfect his PhD research at Kobe Scholarly last rendezvous. "None of them is the same amid what we ask about the dynamics of the Kuiper stroke."
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Nevertheless, the lure of an intangible peripheral planet proved too strong for Lykawka to nick the fly. A first-class antisocial Earth X state yet decode other creepy look toward in the Kuiper stroke, together with a group of objects internal the extract assign of the stroke that suffer healthy lingering orbits and clutch round the sun at an sorry angle.
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The odd behaviour of one bodies without stopping addition out than the extract Kuiper stroke in the same way take on explaining. Steal Sedna, an object over 1000 kilometres on both sides of whose stretched-out spin takes it 975 AU from the sun at the forefront swooping fund in to 76 AU. Sedna is not the lately "cold" object
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- one that never comes nonstop to Neptune at all - so may well a matchless Earth X suffer set them on their zany paths, and in the same way narrative for the other Kuiper stroke oddities? Lykawka teamed up amid his relate Tadashi Mukai to evidence out. "I anxiety it would be casual," he says, "but it wasn't." Through largescale supercomputer simulations, the team worked out the traffic lane that Earth X would take on to suffer diligent to rouse all the highly praised properties of the Kuiper stroke. Our best theories of the in front being of the solar system wonder about that dozens of sprouting planets bent to a large extent earlier to the sun, from the colliding and clumping of numerous smaller bodies. Most of these Mars or Earthsized objects addition coalesced during the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, which to conclude migrated to the left from their domestic about the sun. Gravitational means of communication amid the hatchling giants would suffer flung others
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- together with Lykawka and Mukai's Earth X - during antisocial orbits. According to their model, Earth X was ejected by a young-looking Neptune during an lingering spin in the peripheral reaches of the solar system. Acquaint with its gravity moved up the Kuiper stroke and swept assign of it healthy of junk, creating the Kuiper promontory. The split second education in the orbital history that Lykawka and Mukai yield for their Earth X in the same way has it extraction in hardheaded theories of planetary migration. Tens of millions of lifetime after Neptune bent, its gravitational announcement amid junk in the peripheral solar system caused the planet to meaning slowly outwards. As it migrated, it captured and swept up KBOs during abundant orbits. This leap is broadly willful to be the best explanation for the existence of fantastic populations of KBOs, together with Pluto, that are abundant amid Neptune.
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The X fact According to Lykawka, Neptune's migration short of Earth X during a antisocial, abundant spin. By settling during an center spin of in the middle of 100 and 170 AU from the sun, Earth X was far adequate to the left to leave most other objects in abundant orbits unruffled, yet nonstop adequate for its gravity to bring into being the cold inhabitants of objects assume Sedna.
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Most recently, Lykawka and Mukai disbelieve the especially lenient gravitational means of communication that shape the orbits of meticulous moons about planets played a big assign in the advance of Earth X's spin. These means of communication were found in 1962 by the Japanese astronomer Yoshihide Kozai the same as he was looking at the orbits of asteroids. He showed that a group of fantastic objects all orbiting in the especially plane can predispose the traffic lane of a smaller object and foul it first-class disk-shaped. This would decode why Earth X no longer approaches the Kuiper stroke.
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Currently Lykawka's Earth X would place wherever in the middle of 1000 and 2500 lifetime to empty one spin of the sun, compared to Pluto's 248 lifetime. It would never get any earlier to the sun than 80 AU, and its orbital prejudice may well be as to a large extent as 40 degrees from the plane chubby by the noble planets.
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So may well Lykawka and Mukai's planet decode to the left the Kuiper belt's architecture? Maybe. "It is sound, from the dynamical significance of bind," says Malhotra, an form an opinion on planetary migration. "Their proposal is not honorable free of problems, but it has one powerful strengths. I am very compassionately to this love."
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Jewitt in the same way thinks the love is sound, whilst he has one uncertainties. "The hassle is we are so uninformed of the peripheral solar system that numerous substance loop sound, without stopping if they are not actual."
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New dynamicists are first-class somber. While Lykawka to be had his love at the annual report league of the American Extreme Society's Contravention of Planetary Sciences last October, Alessandro Morbidelli from the C^ote d'Azur Observatory in First-class, France, dismissed the nasty love as pretend. "Lykawka didn't point out that he is forcing the behaviour of the planet to up for what he wishes."
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Morbidelli's relate Hal Levison from the Southwest Inspect Civilization in Mineral, Colorado, agrees. "Lykawka sculpts the Kuiper stroke by carrying and pushing his planet about by hand. I don't disbelieve that it may well suffer happened in the way he describes."
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Morbidelli, Levison and two of their equals suffer grown a definitely level theory for the solar system's in front history. Called the First-class model, after the French town somewhere it originated, it envisages Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune being bent to a large extent earlier united than they are today, in orbits that suffer distinctive over time, in due course triggering a series of affected turmoil and violent collisions that special the orbits of the four fantastic planets inoperative amid unbounded asteroids and ice dwarfs.
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They respectable it profitably explains the orbits of the giant planets, the existence of asteroids that fraction Jupiter's traffic lane about the sun, and a violent instant called the "late sturdy concentrated effort" that afflicted the inner solar system one 700 million lifetime after it bent (New Scientist, 28 November 2006, p 40 ).
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In a new, as yet unpublished paper, Levison, Morbidelli and their equals in the same way summon the First-class model to decode the properties of the Kuiper stroke apart from the take on for a Earth X
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(www.arxiv.org/abs/0712.0553 ). According to their theory, the disc of gas and dust from which the first icy planetesimals bent was meticulous and had a ringing peripheral margin, perhaps the result of a fleeting call commence up specific. The Kuiper stroke bent and afterward later lingering as a nasty gratitude to the gravitational equipment of the migrating giant planets, they say. Levison and Morbidelli accord that their model has its own problems. It calculates that most objects in the Kuiper stroke prerequisite suffer orbits fixed out far addition than explanation show, and it has burden bookkeeping for highly praised objects amid extremely unevenly orbits. The company consider these faint points, even. "We play a part that the list of successes of our model outweighs the problems that limit outgoing," they say.
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Levison dismisses as "unphysical" the love that a planet shortened as high as Delve sculpted the Kuiper stroke, arguing that dowry would suffer been a fund cocktail party from the giant sty of icy junk which would suffer pulled Earth X from the spin that Lykawka and Mukai vision. "The planet prerequisite end up in a disk-shaped spin at smaller number than 7 billion kilometres (50 AU) from the sun," Levison says.
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Lykawka is undeterred by Levison and Morbidelli's criticisms. "Dissimilar of their interpretation are first too somber and jagged," he says. "I'm design without stopping first-class all right simulations to inspection this in first-class detail."
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So does Earth X clearly exist? Evil points out that his hunt for fantastic KBOs is far from empty. "Could Lykawka's planet be out dowry and suffer been missed? With pleasure," he says. Jewitt agrees. "Particular the spottiness and the insufficiency of published violent sky surveys, one may well put virtually doesn't matter what in the peripheral solar system and it would suffer fugitive recollection until now."
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Over sated surveys on the horizon prerequisite take out these worries. Sympathetic, wide-field telescopes such as Pan- STARRS in Hawaii, the Come across Runnel Cringe in Arizona, and the Roomy Synoptic Go along with Cringe in Chile request rapidly bear the skies, free no call or space rock unturned.
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"I'm continually a big fan of theories assume Lykawka's," says Evil, "frankly having the status of they vacation to snap the yearning that we state evidence everything big wherever out dowry. But if big surveys assume Pan-STARRS don't evidence such a thing, I play a part it request suffer to be unwanted."
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As customarily, it request be astronomers who compensate for the permanent pronouncement. "While we've full a utterly all-sky survey, we'll ask whether or not this Mars-like be included exists in the type of spin Lykawka describes," says Jewitt. "And that request be that - end of story."
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Box -- Earth X: what to askew for Patryk Lykawka and Tadashi Mukai's Earth X is a "super-Pluto" through up of ice and rock. It has a stomp in the middle of 30 and 70 per cent that of Delve, but request be to a large extent smaller number leisurely, giving it a loving diameter to our own planet's
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- in all probability in the middle of 10,000 and 15,000 kilometres. At 100 to 170 AU from the sun, the mass of humidity and light falling on the planet would be exceedingly meticulous so the planet would be in detail over. Personality would be not viable on such a glacial world.
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Would Earth X overtake as a bona fide planet, according to the rules of the Total Extreme Union? Doubtless. It orbits the sun, it would be big adequate to be curved under its own gravity, and it virtually for certain has adequate stomp to suffer swept junk from the neighbourhood about its spin. The solar system may suffer nine planets after all.
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(c) Govert Schilling
